Keywords
Water scarcity
Crop-livestock
Climate change
Circular economy
How to Cite
Abstract
This paper assesses the sustainability of agricultural water management in two contrasting regions of Morocco and examines the economic and volumetric water productivity of various crops and livestock products. Considering examples from the oasis areas in the East (Drâa oases) to the sub-humid Saïss plain in the North, we find that sustainable water use for certain crops may not be achievable due to intensive groundwater depletion. Furthermore, we show that livestock economic water productivity is often limited compared to crops, which may hide complex interactions between crops and livestock. These interactions provide diverse and steady sources of income for farmers, ensuring the resilience of farms in the face of climate, biotic, and economic risks. Our findings also suggest that the labor requirements of farming activities are burdensome, particularly for family members. Given the significant constraints affecting the agricultural sector, it would be too risky to continue promoting it as the main driver of the country's economy. The challenges posed by climate change and the need for more environmentally friendly practices mean that simple solutions cannot be relied upon for the future.
References
Rockström J, Falkenmark M, Karlberg L, Hoff H, Rost S, Gerten D. Future water availability for global food production: The potential of green water for increasing resilience to global change. Water Resour Res. 2009; 45: 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006767
Siderius C, Boonstra H, Munaswamy V, Ramana C, Kabat P, van Ierland E, et al. Climate-smart tank irrigation: A multi-year analysis of improved conjunctive water use under high rainfall variability. Agric Water Manag. 2015; 148: 52-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.09.009
Schilling J, Hertig E, Tramblay Y, Scheffran J. Climate change vulnerability, water resources and social implications in North Africa. Reg Environ Chang. 2020; 20: 15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-020-01597-7
Benouniche M, Kuper M, Hammani A, Boesveld H. Making the user visible: analysing irrigation practices and farmers’ logic to explain actual drip irrigation performance. Irrig Sci. 2014; 32: 405-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-014-0438-0
Schyns JF, Hoekstra AY. The added value of water footprint assessment for national water policy: a case study for Morocco. PLoS One 2014; 9: e99705. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099705
Sraïri MT. Repenser le modèle de développement agricole du Maroc pour l’ère post Covid-19. Cah Agri. 2021; 30: 17. https://doi.org/10.1051/cagri/2021003
Kuper M, Mayaux P-L, Benmihoub A. The persistent appeal of the California agricultural dream in North Africa. Water Altern. 2023; 16: 39-41.
Molle F, Tanouti O. Squaring the circle: Agricultural intensification vs. water conservation in Morocco. Agric Water Manag. 2017; 192: 170-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2017.07.009
Mansir I, Bouchaou L, Chebli B, Ait Brahim Y, Choukr-Allah R. A specific indicator approach for the assessment of water resourc.e vulnerability in arid areas: the case of the Souss-Massa Region (Morocco). Hydrol Sci J. 2021; 66: 1151-68. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2021.1924379
Awaad HA, Mansour E, Akrami M, Fath HES, Javadi AA, Negm A. Availability and feasibility of water desalination as a non-conventional resource for agricultural irrigation in the MENA region: a review. Sustainability. 2020; 12: 7592. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12187592
Famiglietti JS. The global groundwater crisis. Nat Clim Chang. 2014; 4: 945-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2425
Wada Y, van Beek LPH, van Kempen CM, Reckman JWTM, Vasak S, Bierkens MFP. Global depletion of groundwater resources. Geophys Res Lett. 2010; 37: 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL044571
Falkenmark M. Shift in thinking to address the 21st century hunger gap. Water Resour Manag. 2007; 21: 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-006-9037-z
Lechenet M, Dessaint F, Py G, Makowski D, Munier-Jolain N. Reducing pesticide use while preserving crop productivity and profitability on arable farms. Nat Plants. 2017; 3: 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2017.8
Herrero M, Thornton PK, Notenbaert AM, Wood S, Msangi S, Freeman HA, et al. Smart investments in sustainable food production: revisiting mixed crop-livestock systems. Science (1979). 2010; 327: 822-5. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1183725
Garrett RD, Ryschawy J, Bell LW, Cortner O, Ferreira J, Garik AVN, et al. Drivers of decoupling and recoupling of crop and livestock systems at farm and territorial scales. Ecol Soc. 2020; 25(1): 24. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-11412-250124
Velasco-Muñoz JF, Mendoza JMF, Aznar-Sánchez JA, Gallego-Schmid A. Circular economy implementation in the agricultural sector: Definition, strategies and indicators. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2021; 170: 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105618
Magne MA, Nozières-Petit MO, Cournut S, Ollion É, Puillet L, Renaudeau D, et al. Gérer la diversité animale dans les systèmes d’élevage : laquelle, comment et pour quels bénéfices ? INRA Prod Anim. 2019; 32: 263-80. https://doi.org/10.20870/productions-animales.2019.32.2.2496
Haut Commissariat AU Plan. Enquête nationale sur la consommation et la dépense des ménages au Maroc 2015. Available from https://www.hcp.ma/Enquete-nationale-sur-la-consommation-et-les-depenses-des-menages_a95.html
Losch B. Decent employment and the future of agriculture. How dominant narratives prevent addressing structural issues. Front Sustainable Food Syst. 2021; 6: 862249. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.862249
Hoekstra AY, Mekonnen MM. The water footprint of humanity. Proc Nat Acad Sci. 2012; 109: 3232-7. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1109936109
Molden D, Oweis T, Steduto P, Bindraban P, Hanjra MA, Kijne J. Improving agricultural water productivity: Between optimism and caution. Agric Water Manag. 2010; 97: 528-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2009.03.023
Dedieu B, Laurent C, Mundler P. Organisation du travail dans les systèmes d’activités complexes Intérêt et limites de la méthode Bilan Travail. EconRur. 1999; 253: 28-35. https://doi.org/10.3406/ecoru.1999.5111
el Khoumsi W, Hammani A, Bouarfa S, Bouaziz A, ben Aïssa I. Contribution de la nappe phréatique à l’alimentation hydrique du palmier dattier (Phoenix dactylifera) dans les zones oasiennes. Cah Agric. 2017; 26: 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1051/cagri/2017032
Khardi Y, Lacombe G, Kuper M, Taky A, Bouarfa S, Hammani A. Pomper ou disparaître : le dilemme du renforcement des khettaras par le pompage solaire dans les oasis du Maroc. Cah Agric. 2023; 32: 1. https://doi.org/10.1051/cagri/2022030
Oudret A, Heinz R. Groundwater governance through institutional bricolage? Participation in Morocco’s Chtouka aquifer contract. Water Int. 2022; 47: 565-82. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2022.2049545
Hamdy A, Ragab R, Scarascia-Mugnozza E. Coping with water scarcity: water saving and increasing water productivity. Irrig Drain. 2003; 52: 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.73
Berbel J, Pedraza V, Giannoccaro G. The trajectory towards basin closure of a European river: Guadalquivir. Int J River Basin Manag. 2013; 11: 111-9. https://doi.org/10.1080/15715124.2013.768625
Hssaisoune M, Bouchaou L, Sifeddine A, Bouimetarhan I, Chehbouni A. Moroccan groundwater resources and evolution with global climate changes. Geosciences (Basel). 2020; 10: 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10020081
Sraïri MT, Benjelloun R, Karrou M, Ates S, Kuper M. Biophysical and economic water productivity of dual-purpose cattle farming. Animal. 2016; 10: 283-91. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731115002360
Kuper M, Bouarfa S, Errahj M, Faysse N, Hammani A, Hartani T. A crop needs more than a drop: towards a new praxis in irrigation management in North Africa. Irrig Drain. 2009; 58: 231-9. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.533
Sraïri MT, Mansour S, Benidir M, Bengoumi M, Alary V. How does livestock contribute to the efficiency of the oases’ farming systems. J Agric Sci. 2019; 15: 1-14. https://doi.org/10.35516/jjas.v15i1.35
Malanski PD, Dedieu B, Schiavi S. Mapping the research domains on work in agriculture. A bibliometric review from Scopus database. J Rural Stud. 2021; 81: 305-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.10.050
Cournut S, Chauvat S, Correa P, Santos Filho JC dos, Diéguez F, Hostiou N, et al. Analyzing work organization on livestock farm by the work assessment method: a meta-analysis. Agron Sustain Dev. 2018; 38: 58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-018-0534-2
Dieguez F, Morales H, Cournut S. La méthode Bilan travail pour l’approche du fonctionnement des élevages extensifs uruguayens. Cah Agric. 2010; 19: 316-22. https://doi.org/10.1684/agr.2010.0419
Hostiou N, Dedieu B, Madelrieux S, Pham DK, Trong BV. Relations entre organisation du travail et taille des exploitations laitières: une étude à Moc Chau (Vietnam). Cah Agric. 2010; 19: 323-30. https://doi.org/10.1684/agr.2010.0404
Taher Sraïri M, Naqach Y. Comparing the uses of available labor and capital in diversified farming systems in Drâa oases (Morocco). New Medit. 2022; 21: 21-34. https://doi.org/10.30682/nm2205b
Hamamouche MF, Kuper M, Amichi H, Lejars C, Ghodbani T. New reading of Saharan agricultural transformation: Continuities of ancient oases and their extensions. World Dev. 2018; 107: 210-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.02.026
Chen S. How have the World’s poorest fared since the early 1980s? World Bank Res Obs. 2004; 19: 141-69. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkh020
Sraïri MT, Ghabiyel Y. Coping with the work constraints in crop-livestock farming systems. Ann Agric Sci. 2017; 62: 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2017.01.001
Sraïri MT, Ouidat L. Understanding diversified oasis farms’ economic performances through an analysis of labor uses and their relation to the invested capital. J Oasis Agric Sustain Dev. 2022; 4: 18-32. https://doi.org/10.56027/JOASD.032022
Duteurtre G, Faye B. L’élevage, richesse des pauvres. Versailles: Editions Quæ; 2009. https://doi.org/10.3917/quae.duteu.2009.01
Dedieu B, Nettle R, Schiavi SM de A, Sraïri MT, Malanski PD. Which perspectives for work in agriculture? Food for thought for a research agenda. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2022; 6: 857887. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.857887
Elder AD. The green Morocco plan in Boudnib: examining effects on rural livelihoods. J Env Dev. 2022; 31: 275-99. https://doi.org/10.1177/10704965221098149
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2022 Mohamed Taher Sraïri, Lamya Assis , Khaoula Bentahar